Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey From the Greeks to the Present by Marvin Carlson, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y. 528 pp, $45 cloth.
Theatre theory is that large, somewhat vaguely defined body of commentary that has accompanied the practice of theatre throughout its history. The relationship between theory and practice has often been ambiguous, not tenuous: many of those who have written on theatre have had no professional connection with it, while many of the best practitioners have had little of theoretical interest to say. From Aristotle on, theory has undertaken a variety of tasks: to describe the nature of theatre and to prescribe specific approaches to it; to serve as a blueprint for production and as explication or justification after the fact. The importance of theory is that it offers insight into both what theatre people think or hope they’re doing (whether or not they attain their objectives in practice) and how theatre has been perceived by the greater and lesser minds of every period.
Theory is also the area in which theatre intersects with other dis ciplines, especially with various forms of social thought. Much of the most interesting theoretical work on theatre has resulted from attempts to see theatre from the perspectives of such fields as literature, philosophy, psychology, sociology, anthropology and political theory.
In his new book, Marvin Carlson seeks to accommodate this plurality of approach by discussing writers from all disciplines in a survey of theatre theory that is really more chronicle than history. Theories of Theatre is admirably comprehensive, but there are places in it where the emphasis seems misplaced. For example, Carlson goes to the trouble of letting the reader know that Sir Walter Scott (who apparently had little else to say about the theatre) thought that reading Shakespeare might be more satisfying than seeing his plays performed; yet Carlson says nothing specific about the acting theories of Jacques Copeau and Charles Dullin, important enough to have influenced Artaud and the whole development of modern mime.
Because he summarizes instead of anthologizing, Carlson is able to cover a great deal of ground and to present a clear picture of the ebb and flow of theory not available from other texts. What emerges as a basic theme is that theory has always had as its primary concern the relationship between performance and audience. Aristotle’s mysterious notion of katharsis is simply an attempt to define how people feel after seeing a tragedy; his structural analysis of tragedy is intended to show how katharsis may be produced. The medieval and renaissance concern with the morality of theatre—its social influence—is a variation on that issue, fueled by the suspicion that an audience will emulate what it sees on stage. This question, of course, has reappeared throughout history, from Plato’s assertion that theatre feeds the passions instead of fostering moderation, to the Puritan insistence that the theatre promotes licentiousness, to Rousseau’s opinion that because theatre only “augments natural inclinations” it will encourage the good to be what they already are and the bad to be worse, to our own current worries about the effects of pornography and violence in film and on television.
Many of these arguments are clearly designed to reinforce the anti-theatrical prejudice which probably has its roots in the feeling that theatre is like life, but without life’s accountability. This distance between life and its theatrical representations can be either a virtue or a vice, depending on who’s doing the thinking. For Rousseau, the pernicious conventions of theatre mediate destructively between stage and audience; for Charles Lamb, the theatre’s emotional distancing makes Restoration comedy exempt from moral judgment. Diderot suggests that because theatrical representation distances the audience from its own social behavior, it may enable the audience to evaluate its moral shortcomings and make desirable changes. (A similar train of thought underlies the concept of the Verfremdungseffekt postulated by Diderot’s admirer, Bertolt Brecht.)
Acting theory per se first enters the discussion in the 18th century; its basic question, then as now, is: What exactly does an actor do? Does the actor actually experience anything, or merely represent experience? Diderot’s famous paradox is that the actors who are most successful in representing emotional states are those who can detach themselves the furthest from those states. Stanislavski disagrees, suggesting that a higher degree of emotional identification between actor and role makes for good acting.
The 19th century brought with it a measure of doubt as to whether the theatre really does have any moral or emotional effect on its audience and the fear that acknowledgement of the distancing function of theatre might bring about its destruction. Near the turn of the 19th century, Friedrich Schiller described the modern writer as plagued by a “self-divided and self-conscious intellectual concern with problems of expression” (Carlson’s paraphrase) which could lead to paralysis, and advocated a return to writing centered in some ideal. Half a century later, Friedrich Hebbel challenged the whole notion of “the center,” finding the universe to be made up only of unresolvable conflicts. In the wake of Deconstruction, the issue of theatre’s dependence on a center of reference is presently very much in focus. Anne Ubersfeld, for example, finds that theatre’s paradoxical resemblance to, and difference from, life ultimately translates into an experience of absence; theatre is inevitably defined by a “lack of total fulfillment of total presence, both physical and intellectual” (Carlson’s paraphrase). To bridge the gap, theatre must defeat representation (as Artaud seems to suggest) and reestablish the primacy of presence, either by discovering a mode of performance that is not “theatre” (Josette Féral) or by imbuing itself with the universal significance of ritual (Richard Schechner). Herbert Blau, whom Carlson allows to have the last word, regards both options skeptically: “There is nothing more illusory in performance than the illusion of the unmediated.”
In its own way, Carlson’s discourse is implicated in creating an “illusion of the unmediated.” His method presupposes that paraphrase is sufficient for the presentation of theoretical ideas—although I have no reason to question the accuracy of his paraphrasing, this mode of presentation tends to rob his sources of their individuality: everything in the book is mediated by Carlson’s reading, digesting and summarizing. He wants theory to be clear and systematic: his presentation makes it seem so, even where his sources deny that this is their intention. Some of the theorists and philosophers Carlson mentions (Ernst Mach, Hebbel, Artaud, Jacques Derrida, perhaps Blau) would question the possibility of reducing any statement to a discursive essence. Carlson quotes German playwright Franz Xaver Kroetz to the effect that “language is no longer able to summon up the recollection of what was originally meant;” Derrida and other Deconstructionists hold that writing cannot be shown to be centered in any one meaning.
In all theoretical writing, form and style are as important as content; theorists are self-reflexive by nature and frequently attempt to illustrate their ideas in their presentation of them. Thus, Gertrude Stein’s fascinating essay, “Plays” (1934), is as much an example of her concept of literary “Landscape” as the drama she describes in it. Tristan Tzara’s Dada manifestos say more through typographical arrangement than through rhetoric; the allusiveness of Blau’s prose style is also an important part of his meaning. This level of discourse is lost in Carlson’s book; he mentions the significance of style in Fernando Arrabal’s and Richard Foreman’s writings, but is otherwise content to disregard the ways his sources express themselves. My point here is not that Carlson’s method invalidates his work, but that it is reflective of a tacitly atheoretical approach to theory.
It is not entirely clear for whom Theories of Theatre is intended. Although it is in the nature of a textbook, it’s probably too long, and too expensive, for use in most courses. For those with a knowledge of theatre history, Carlson’s text will serve as a valuable starting point. Thanks to careful documentation and an excellent index, Theories of Theatre will also function as a useful reference work for those seeking summaries of particular theorists’ ideas or of the theoretical trends of a given period. Finally, the book as a whole serves as a useful refresher course for those versed in theory and a valuable reminder that no question has been answered definitively. A great many theoretical issues of importance to theatre remain to be explored.
Philip Auslander is a writer and member of the English faculty at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Va.
Theatre Facts Bookshelf
Philanthropy
People in Philanthropy: A Guide to Philanthropic Leaders, Major Donors, and Funding Connections, edited by Yvette Henry. This collection of biographical sketches of 8,000 philanthropy decision-makers is divided into four sections: Wealthy People, Foundation Donors, Foundation Officers and Corporate Officers. Listings include professional and philanthropic affiliations, state of birth and alma mater. The Taft Corporation, 5125 MacArthur Blvd. NW, Washington, DC 20016. 361 pp, $187 cloth.
Foundations Today: Current Facts and Figures on Private Foundations, published by The Foundation Center. This report provides an overview of the foundation world with an analysis of fiscal and program data from 26,000 private foundations. Some of the key findings are: U.S. grantmak-ing foundations have assets of $47.6 billion and made grants of $3.8 billion last year; New York foundations make up 19 percent of the total number of foundations and hold 27 percent of all foundation assets. The Foundation Center, 79 Fifth Ave, New York, NY 10003. 22 pp, $2 paper.
Corporate Philanthropy in America: New Perspectives for the Eighties, by Benjamin Lord. This report compares corporate and foundation giving, concluding that corporate giving now equals, and in some cases exceeds, foundation contributions. The factors influencing corporate giving decisions are also discussed, and recipients are analyzed by major nonprofit categories. It includes a section on the future of corporate giving and a bibliography. The Taft Corporation, 5125 MacArthur Blvd. NW, Washington, DC 20016. 51 pp, $27 paper.
A Window on the World of Philanthropy: A Compilation of Insights 1973-1983, edited by Elizabeth M. Doherty, Lisa H. Kliefoth and Elizabeth A. Singer. This Better Business Bureau overview of all aspects of raising money includes chapters on business giving, government giving, individual donations, direct-mail solicitations and special events. Less a “how to” book and more a discussion of the philosophies and legalities involved, the book emphasizes such legal and political aspects of fundraising as I.R.S. regulations and the legislative pro-cess. Council of Better Business Bureaus, 1515 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22209. 96 pp, $25 paper.
Making Money
The Buck Starts Here: Enterprise and the Arts, edited by Robert Karl Manoff. This transcript of a 1983 conference sponsored by Volunteer Lawyers for the Arts covers ways to analyze an organization’s potential to engage in profit-making endeavors, legal restrictions on earned income activities, pros and cons of setting up a subsidiary, projects aimed at profiting from the new media, real estate transactions, commercial theatre transfers, merchandising and publishing. Also included are bibliography, resource guide and biographies of conference speakers. Volunteer Lawyers for the Arts, 1560 Broadway, Suite 711, New York NY 10036. 165 pp, $9.95.
The Raising of Money: Thirty-Five Essentials Every Trustee Should Know by James Gregory Lord. This compendium of anecdotes, examples, quotations and advice about the interactions of people who raise and give money, is not a fund-raising primer. Its focus is on the art and science of campaigning and face-to-face solicitation, directed toward development of donors and institutions rather than simply getting donations. Third Sector Press, 2000 Euclid Ave., Box 18044, Cleveland, OH 44118. 128 pp, $34.50 cloth.
Nonprofit Piggy Goes to Market: How the Denver Children’s Museum Earns $600,000 Annually by Robin Simons, Lisa Farber Miller and Peter Lengsfelder. Strategies for earned income projects in a nonprofit environment are presented in a breezy, humorous style accompanied by attractive graphics. Based on the view that a major goal of the organization is “self-sufficiency, growth and profit,” the booklet describes how a nonprofit group can use sophisticated marketing techniques to provide a service while at the same time earning enough income to insure its own future. Children’s Museum of Denver, 2121 Crescent Dr., Denver, CO 80211. 31 pp, $9.90 paper. Substantial discounts for quantity orders.
Tools of the Trade
Directory of Matching Gift Programs for the Arts, published by Business Committee for the Arts. The directory includes contact information for 225 businesses that will match charitable gifts and provides guidelines describing those eligible to make the original donations and those entitled to receive the corporations’ matching gifts. Business Committee for the Arts. 1775 Broadway, New York, NY 10019. 152 pp, $5 paper.
Dear Friend: Mastering the Art of Direct Mail Fund Raising by Kay Partney Lautman and Henry Goldstein. This step-by-step guide to raising money by direct mail begins with the basics and proceeds to the sophisticated intricacies of the direct-mail process. The book provides clear, concise and detailed advice and is replete with model fund-raising let-ters, response instruments and packages, lists of brokers and consultants and numerous tips from in-siders. The Taft Corporation, 5125 MacArthur Blvd. NW, Washington, DC 20016. 299 pp, $47.50, plus $2.50 p&h, cloth.
Surveys and Reports
Annual Survey of Corporate Contributions, 1984 Edition published by the Conference Board. This survey of corporate giving during 1982, the 17th in an annual series, is based on sample groups from the 2,000 largest corporations which account for about 45 percent of all corporate giving in the U.S. Despite a drop of 23 percent in corporate profits between 1981 and 1982, the report finds that contributions increased by 13 percent in 1982, continuing the upward pattern in contributions seen over the previous decade. The Conference Board, 845 Third Ave., New York, NY 10022. 43 pp, $125 paper.
Profile: 1984 Opera America and the Professional Opera Companies. This book includes the results of the 1982-83 survey of professional opera as well as season schedules and organizational profiles of the 89 companies that are members of Opera America. The major findings of the survey indicate a cumulative deficit for all participants of $1.66 million, a slight increase over last year. Operating income and expenses both rose about 13 percent over the year before. Earned income accounted for 51 percent of all income. Individual donors were the chief source of contributions, representing 16 percent of total income. Corporations were the second largest source at 6 percent of income, moving ahead of foundations, which decreased from 7 to 5 percent. Opera America, 633 E St. NW Washington, DC 20004. 72 pp, $8 paper.
